TGFβ is one of the major signaling pathways in both glioma and ischemia.112,113 In hypoxic ischemia, the elevated expression of cytokine-mediated TGFβ114 upregulates antiapoptotic Bcl2 and Bcl-xl115 proteins and PAI-1 (ref. 116) and also transactivates the MAPK pathway and offers neuroprotection from oxidative ischemic injuries.117 Moreover, in glioma, TGFβ increases ROS production and activates GSK3β via the mTOR pathway in mitochondria by suppressing antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and GPx.118. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and glioma.