Meanwhile, PCA has been reported to inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators, such as interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-1β, and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) [37,38,39], potentially by suppressing the activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) [33,38] in murine BV2 microglia cells and colitis-model mice. Here, TNF is linked to colitis.