ATF6 and Autoimmunity: In contrast, inhibition of cellular stress and conditional deletion of XBP-1 in lymphocytes suppressed Th17 cell-dependent autoimmunity in an EAE mouse model (Deslauriers et al., 2011); the IRE1α pathway was activated by acute infection and was required for T cell differentiation into effector T cells (Kemp et al., 2013); In macrophages, IRE1α is a positive regulator of TLR responses, and TLR2 and TLR4 activated the IRE1α–XBP-1 axis but not the PERK or ATF6α pathways.