TNF and Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Several immunotherapies, including intravenous immunoglobulin (22), anti-TNFα antibodies (23), IL-6 blocking Abs (24), tranilast (25), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) inducers (26), IL-1 receptor antagonists (27), and IL-2 complexes to amplify CD4+ Tregs (13), have been successful in treating mdx mice; however, their potential effect on DMD patients is unclear.