CASP1 and viral myocarditis: We previously demonstrated that components of IL-1R-mediated signaling (i.e., TLR4, caspase-1, IL-1β, and IL-18) are upregulated in the heart during viral myocarditis in male mice and that testosterone elevates this pathway on mast cells and macrophages during the innate and adaptive immune response to CVB3 infection in our model (44, 46).