This is a highly conserved inducer of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β) released from Kupffer cells, activated sinusoidal cells, and cholangiocytes, which reduce the expression and the function of hepatocellular and cholangiocellular transporters and cause cholestasis as well as oxidative, mitochondrial, and endoplasmic reticulum stress [113,114]. Here, TNF is linked to cholestasis.