DMD and Cognitive impairment: Abnormalities in brain structure, biochemistry, and neurophysiological function of mice lacking functional dystrophin have been observed and include changes in cellular antioxidant defenses, osmoregulation, neurotransmission, and synaptic plasticity (Vaillend et al., 1999, 2004; Vaillend and Billard, 2002; Dallerac et al., 2011; Cohen et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2015; Vaillend and Chaussenot, 2017; Pereira da Silva et al., 2018); these biological effects may underlie the cognitive deficits associated with a lack of functional dystrophin.