TNF and viral infectious disease: The innate immune system detects and responds to viral infections through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), resulting in the production of diverse cytokines, such as type I interferons (IFN-α and -β), type II interferon (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and various interleukins (ILs), which have different immunoregulatory functions during the immune response to limit viral propagation.