TNF and Nephropathy: In addition, high concentrations of AngII maintained for long periods of time, induce an inflammatory response characterized by the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) [10,11], infiltration of macrophages (ED-1 positive cells) [12], tubular overexpression of osteopontin (OPN) [12], and the expression of other pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and adhesion molecules, which are ultimately associated with kidney damage induced by AngII [8,13].