As such, in the current study we investigated, first, if TGF-β induced the expression of the negative immune modulators B7-1 and/or B7-2 in pancreatic cancer, and if so, second, whether checkpoint protein expression was mediated via Smad and/or non-Smad signaling and necessary for aspects of TGF-β’s protumorigenic actions. Here, TGFB1 is linked to familial pancreatic carcinoma.