TNF and type 1 diabetes mellitus: Figure 6(d) shows that circulating TNFα levels were slightly increased between d1 and d8-d15 for all conditions. At d8, T1D EMPA mice tended to have a lower TNFα level than untreated T1D mice (43.42 ± 2.20 vs. 54.33 ± 2.15 pg/mL; p = 0.306). However, TNFα levels were increased in the CTL and T1D EMPA+GABA groups at d22. Taken together, these results indicated that empagliflozin protected β-cell mass against glucotoxicity through a decrease of ER stress, oxidative stress, and inflammation gene expression.