REN and chronic kidney disease: This is exemplified by the statistic that in people with end-stage renal disease treated with dialysis, the risk of cardiovascular mortality is increased 10- to 20-fold compared with those without CKD.[30] Furthermore, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) commonly used to for renoprotection and in the management of hypertension and heart failure have complex effects on renal function via the renin–angiotensin system.