TNF and Alzheimer disease: Compared to lean-derived AD-MSCs, obese- and T2D-derived AD-MSCs showed increased expression and secretion of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1b, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-a, and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1), activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, superior migratory, invasion, and phagocytosis capacities, but less effective in suppressing T cell and B cell proliferation, activating the M2 macrophage phenotype, and increasing TGF-b1 secretion [93].