TF and protein-energy malnutrition: FID may be caused by the accelerated production of red blood cells induced by the administration of ESA, and by low levels of transferrin secondary to malnutrition and/or lower mobilization of iron stocks in the reticuloendothelial system in contexts of inflammation or infection.17 This study aimed to associated FID with states of increased inflammation and oxidative stress, but found a consistent association between FID and protein-energy malnutrition.