GDF15 and endothelial dysfunction: In a study conducted on the Framingham Offspring cohort, CFPWV as a measure of aortic stiffness, augmentation index and forward pressure wave amplitude as a measure of stiffness in medium-sized arteries, and brachial FMD as a measure of endothelial dysfunction in medium-sized arteries were found to be significantly associated with an increased serum GDF-15 level [17].