TNF and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: With some exceptions, the Mann–Whitney U Test determined statistically significant (p < 0.05) higher numbers of IL-1α, IL-4, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, TNF-α, MMP-2, TIMP-2, TGF-β1, hBD-2 immunoreactive cells in bronchial epithelium, connective tissue, blood vessel wall, bronchial smooth muscle, and bronchial glands of COPD-affected lungs in comparison with the control group.