TNF and Alzheimer disease: Increased activation of microglia and astrocytes has been identified in AD, manifesting in release of proinflammatory cytokines and neurotoxic mediators such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-12, and IL-18, together with upregulated production of neurotoxic mediators including proteolytic enzymes, complement factors, nitric oxide (NO), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) [7].