To identify potential biomarkers associated with E. coli carriage and infection, the urine concentrations of an array of pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines, linked to UTIs and including IL-1β, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12, IL-17A, TNFα and IFNγ were measured [17, 24–30]. Here, IL4 is linked to infection.