TNF and Sepsis: Once released, TNF-α and IL-1 act on different target cells to promote the proliferation, activation, differentiation, and survival of macrophages (Witsell & Schook, 1992; Fahlman et al., 1994; Conte et al., 2006) and all these effects enhance proinflammatory responses during sepsis, we confirmed an increase in GM-CSF levels at 17 and 48 h in the LPS group, when compared to the CTL group.