VCAM1 and endothelial dysfunction: Endothelial dysfunction precedes and triggers inflammation, where perturbed endothelial cells express at their surface several adhesion molecules such as vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) and intracellular molecular adhesion 1 (ICAM-1), accompanied by the production of various pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1β [80].