Comparable to the effect of HD plasma, sulfates (pCS, IxS, PhS) were able to promote monocyte differentiation, indicating the contribution of uremic toxins to a shift in monocyte subpopulations, as previously demonstrated for homocysteine which induced epigenetic dysregulation which affected several transcription regulators important for monocyte differentiation [e.g., fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 (FLT3); Histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1); MAX network transcriptional repressor (MNT)] leading to enhanced generation of CD14++CD16+ monocytes12. Here, FLT3 is linked to Huntington disease.