TNF and depressive disorder: Common pathophysiological events have been identified in depression and AD, including activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis with increased glucocorticoid levels, neuroinflammation with an aberrant tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) signaling, and an impairment of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) signaling (Caraci et al., 2018).