TNF and heart failure: IL-1β and IL-18 promote fibroblast phenotype and apoptosis [55,56], the TNF superfamily mediates collagen degradation and progressive LV dilation [89], IL-6 is involved in tissue injury and heart failure [84] and soluble ST2 (sST2), the receptor for IL-33, is the first inflammatory prognostic biomarker approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for heart failure [47].