Indeed one of the pathways underlying the potential diabetogenic action of E. coli amyloid-DNA complexes might be its direct triggering of pancreatic β-cell death by activating TLR2 and TLR9, which in turn leads to the production of type I IFN and the subsequent well-defined cascade of T1D autoimmune alterations19,55. Here, TLR2 is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus.