BDNF and schizophrenia: rTMS has also been used for alleviating gamma oscillation deficits in autism and schizophrenia.161,162 rTMS sessions in rats were shown to induce plastic molecular changes—including changes in the levels c-fos, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cholecystokinin or corticotropin (ACTH)—resembling the effects of antidepressants or electroconvulsive therapy interventions.26,163 Novel TMS techniques to focally stimulate particular deep brain regions are being developed for medical use and clinical trials.