TNF and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: In particular, NF-κB plays a crucial role in the chronic inflammatory responses found in COPD, regulating the expression of genes for pro-inflammatory mediators (e.g., IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, TNF-α) and chemotactic factors (e.g., IL-17A and MIP-1a) involved in triggering lung infiltration by inflammatory cells, thus amplifying oxidative stress and inflammation, as well as causing emphysema, fibrosis of small airways and remodeling of airway walls, ultimately impairing lung function.