TNF and cholesteryl ester measurement: Independent-Samples T-tests showed no significant differences in IL-10, TNF-alpha or IL-4 concentrations between dogs with confirmed or suspected CE and dogs with non-GI causes (P-value 0.264, 0.858 and 0.834, respectively, mean (standard deviation); confirmed or suspected CE group vs. non-GI causes group: IL-10 340.1 pg/mL (292.7) vs. 437.3 pg/mL (325.9), TNF-alpha 297.5 pg/mL (219.2) vs. 286.0 pg/mL (239.4), IL-4 416.8 pg/mL (449.8) vs. 445.5 pg/mL (538.8), Fig. 2).