Using this information, and the fact that it previously was unknown whether directly stimulating the inflammatory reflex in humans inhibits tumor necrosis factor (TNF)–α production, Koopman et al. demonstrated that peripheral blood production of TNF-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 was inhibited in epilepsy patients with an implantable left cervical vagus nerve–stimulating device [118]. Here, TNF is linked to epilepsy.