Furthermore, administration of high-dose carnosine in mice reduced hippocampal acetylcholinesterase and nuclear factor kappa-B activity (NF-kB, a key pathway for induction of brain oxidative stress and inflammation) [109], reduced levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, a marker of astrogliosis in the hippocampus), lowered lipid peroxidation, rescued AD-related mitochondrial dysfunction in the hippocampus and cortex [48], and increased anti-oxidant activity [110,111]. Here, GFAP is linked to Alzheimer disease.