Interestingly, our transcriptome analysis also found that untreated Sm infection was associated with changes in the sphingosine-1P receptor-mediated signal transduction and down-regulation of CD69 (see Supplementary Note 6), potentially linking the dramatic treatment-induced increase in CD69+ CD4+ T cell frequency to a lift of suppression of immune cell retention and/or tissue residency31. Here, CD69 is linked to infection.