VHL and nonpapillary renal cell carcinoma: Nevertheless, many genes susceptible to hypermethylation have been identified, including VHL, RASSF1A, CDH1, and APAF1, and reported as promising biomarkers of ccRCC (for example, Dmitriev et al., 2014; Braga et al., 2015; Xing and He, 2016; Morris and Latif, 2017).