PTGS2 and edema: In a comparative study, black ginseng exhibited stronger anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects than red ginseng in xylene-induced ear edema model in mice and carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats; it inhibited the pro-inflammatory mediators, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) [111].