TNF and necrotizing enterocolitis: Abundant evidence has suggested the presence of increased concentrations of LPS as well as TLRs/MyD88-associated proinflammatory cytokines including IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the serum of patients of NEC.43,44 In animal models, the results are extremely similar, that is, proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α are upregulated.45 Our cellular data show that IRF5 directly binds with the promoter regions of the M1 macrophage-associated genes Ccl4, Ccl5, Tnf and Il12b, which are induced by LPS.