In addition, compared to breastfed control, we found an increase in the levels of TNFα in the brain [NEC group 1.8 pg/mg (1.3–2.0 pg/mg); control group 1.3 pg/mg (1.1–1.6 pg/mg); p = 0.04; Fig. 5e] and ileum of NEC pups [NEC group 10.3 pg/mg (7.7–13.0 pg/mg); control group 3.7 pg/mg (0.5–7.0 pg/mg); p = 0.005; Fig. 5f]. Here, TNF is linked to necrotizing enterocolitis.