TNF and neoplasm: M1-type macrophages have both direct and indirect tumoricidal effects: direct effects by release of reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates, leading to tumor cell cytotoxicity and anti-proliferative effects;53 and indirect effects by enhancing T cell- and NK-driven anti-tumor immunity through secreting cytokines such as CXCL-9, CXCL-10, CXCL-11, IL-23 and TNFα.