TNF and gastric cancer: Macrophage cytokine upregulation in gastric tissues during H. pylori infection has been proven [34], particularly increased expression levels of IL-1, TNF-α, and IL-6; IL-6 mRNA expression in gastritis tissues was shown to correlate with H. pylori-mediated infection and inflammation [34–37], and serum IL-6 concentrations were related to H. pylori-induced gastric cancer [38].