TNF and inflammation: Vascular inflammation is characterized by the up-regulation of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), pentraxin-3, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), and E-selectin in ECs and a pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype in macrophages [3,4,5].