TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: As described above, this mesenchymal reaction could be modelled by raising intestinal organoids from PSCs or by coculture with mesenchymal cells, but recently, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) was induced in intestinal organoids from mice, and TGFβ and TNFα were shown to induce this EMT [196]; both cytokines have been implicated in IBD pathogenesis.