HMGB1 and brain infarction: More recently, Umahara et al. (2018) also observed that, at the acute stage of cerebral infarction in patients, HMGB1 is located in the neuronal cytoplasm, while during the late stage of cerebral infarction, HMGB1 is mainly secreted by macrophages located in the basal ganglia and in some ischemic regions.