Overall, infestation with mites, at low viral infection levels, caused significant changes in expression (i.e. upregulation) of genes involved in the Toll pathway, while very high DWV infection levels associated with Varroa infestation caused significant changes in expression of genes involved in the JNK pathway (figure 1f; electronic supplementary material, data S2), although this latter causal link is not as strong as the former since it may result both from an effect of high viral infection on immune expression and vice versa. This evidence concerns the gene TLR4 and viral infectious disease.