TNF and infection: This is in contrast to the upregulation of proinflammatory cytokine gene expression in human macrophages after infection with L. amazonensis and L. major, such as that of Il-1b, Tnf, and Il-6 (Fernandes et al., 2016), and in murine macrophages after L. major infection, in which Tnf, Il-1, and Il-6 are upregulated (Dillon et al., 2015).