In addition to the canonical pathway, TGF-β activates the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), NF-kB and phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase (PI3K)–protein kinase B (AKT) pathways via a noncanonical pathway that is considered essential for cancer progression, inflammatory responses, and developmental cues9–11. Here, TGFB1 is linked to cancer.