TLR4 and neoplasm: Antibiotic-treated and germ-free mice showed significantly shorter survival and less tumor volume reduction with immunotherapy through injections of CpG-oligonucleotides and anti-interleukin (IL)-10 antibodies, when compared to controls, and highlighted that commensal gut microbiota primed tumor-infiltrating myeloid-derived cells through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) activation and produce cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) critical to antitumor efficacy (Table 1).