TNF and infection: During infection, mucosal injury and stress, the activation of IL-1β can trigger local mucosal immune responses, by stimulating T cell proliferation, and direct neutrophils to injury or infection site through the combination of IL-1β and IL-1R complexes (21, 50), and further activate NF-κB and MAPK pathways, leading to the upregulation of other pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (such as IL-6, IL-8, and TNF).