For example, excess production of inhibitory cytokines contributes to ineffective hematopoiesis in MDS [47] and several studies have shown that myelosuppressive and proinflammatory cytokines such as transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), IL-6 and IFN-γ and IFN-α are elevated in the serum of MDS patients [48,49]. This evidence concerns the gene IFNG and myelodysplastic syndrome.