Proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines are highly induced in the early phase of influenza virus infection and are associated with airway inflammation56,59; thus, BXM may serve to ameliorate severe influenza pneumonia due to exerting an inhibitory effect upon the production of IL-6, MCP-1 and MIP-1α in the early stages of virus infection. Here, IL6 is linked to pneumonia.