VEGFA and cholangiocarcinoma: There is evidence that increased VEGF production is driven in part by oestrogens; cholangiocarcinoma cells express oestrogen receptors, can be stimulated to proliferate with 17-β oestradiol, and can have the stimulatory effect of 17-β oestradiol halted with oestrogen receptor antagonists such as tamoxifen [94, 147, 148].