The Th1 response is triggered by cytokines such as INF α/β and IL-12, and is characterised by release of large amounts of INFɣ and TNFα.78 This in turn may stimulate generation of M1 macrophages and suppress tumour growth.61 Th2 cells are differentiated in response to IL-4, whereupon the Th2 cells produce vast amounts of IL-4, -5 and 13. Here, TNF is linked to neoplasm.