TNF and atherosclerosis: Inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α and IL-6 that are known to be potent activators of NF-κB, are risk factors for vascular disorders, including atherosclerosis, preeclampsia, and hypertension28–30, which suggests that inflammatory cytokines stimulate phenotypic modulation of VSMCs by downregulating the expression of their contractile biomarker genes, likely through activation of NF-κB31.