TNF and infection: Fusco et al. showed that AMPs hBD-2 and hBD-3 inhibited the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α, and IL-1β and promoted the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine TGF-β after Salmonella infection in Caco-2 cells, demonstrating that AMPs can reduce the inflammatory response caused by infection [19].